Introduction Menopause, the absence of a menstrual period for a year, is due to a decline in estrogen and progesterone production by the ovaries [1,2]. About 60% to 80% of women experience menopause symptoms, most commonly vasomotor symptoms (VMS) and sleep disorders [3]. They can start years before, during the menopausal transition. Studies indicate that […]

Introduction Infertility has recently become a major health problem, affecting 15-30% of the reproductive age population [1].  Diseases and conditions that may damage women’s reproductive system and cause infertility include: abnormalities of uterine development, genital system inflammation, previous gynecological surgery, endometriosis, fibroids, endometrial and cervical polyps, and various environmental factors and harmful lifestyle habits [2-8]. […]

Introduction Precocious puberty is commonly defined as the onset of secondary sexual characteristics in females before the age of 8 (2 to 2.5 standard deviations earlier than population norms) or as accelerated development before the age of 9 [1]. The incidence of precocious puberty in girls varies across populations. Central precocious puberty (CPP) is also […]

Introduction The average age of menopause is 51 years and women’s life expectancy exceed 80 years; this means that a woman could live two thirds of her life in menopause. This physiological phase of life is characterized by a decline in estrogen and progesterone levels, which lead to the onset of typical symptoms, such as […]

Introduction The mammalian ovulatory cycle requires an elegant interplay between several hormones, including sequences leading to the gonadotropin surge, triggering oocyte maturation and ovulation [1]. Ovulation has been attributed primarily to luteinizing hormone (LH) activity, while follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) has been shown to be responsible for follicular growth and development, and other peri-ovulatory events […]

Introduction Infertility, defined as the failure to achieve a pregnancy after 12 months or more of regular unprotected sexual intercourse, according to World Health Organization’s statistics refers to 48 million couples and 186 million individuals globally [1]. Based on wide cohort-studies performed in recent years in the United States, chronic stress is considered as a potential […]

Introduction Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is defined as irregularities in the menstrual cycle involving menstrual volume, duration, frequency and regularity in a non-pregnant woman. It is the most common gynaecologic complaint of adolescents admitted to a hospital, affecting up to 20% of reproductive-aged females, with a higher incidence during the adolescence [1]. AUB is an […]

Introduction Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a clinically reversible neurotoxic condition characterized by loss of consciousness, visual disturbances, seizures, headaches, confusion, vomiting, and cortical blindness [1]. PRES can be caused by several clinical conditions, including immunosuppression, chemotherapy, hypertension, renal damage, and infection [1-4]. The incidence of PRES is low, and the condition is predominantly […]

Introduction Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) is a contraceptive administered by intramuscular (dose of 150 mg/mL) or subcutaneous (dose of 104mg/0.65 mL) injection. These formulations are slowly released into the circulation from the injection site, thus DMPA is given every three months. It is known that medroxyprogesterone acetate inhibits the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) peak […]

Introduction Aging, socio and economic factors, health status (e.g. — cardiovascular diseases), vasomotor symptoms (VMS), hormonal variation, and psychiatric illness (depression and anxiety), have been identified as potential causes of sleep disorders during the menopausal transition (perimenopause), menopause and postmenopause [1-8]. VMS such as hot flushes (HF)/sweating affect 80% of women during the peri- and […]

Introduction Cryopreservation of human embryos was first described in 1983 [1]. Since then, the proportion of frozen embryo transfers (FET) has been increasing in the field of assisted reproduction technology (ART) [2]. This rise in the number of FETs can be ascribed to refinement in embryo vitrification methods resulting in improved post-thaw embryo survival rates […]

Introduction Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a very frequent gynecologic and endocrine disease that affects 5–25% of fertile women [1,2]. It is widely known that PCOS is diagnosed in the presence of at least 2 of the 3 diagnostic criteria established at the American Society for Reproductive Medicine and European Society for Human Reproduction and […]

Introduction With the tendency toward younger menarche, lower birth rates, and longer lives, contemporary women spend far more of their lives menstruating than their ancestors did. According to Mishell [1], women have approximately 481 menstrual cycles during their reproductive years. With an average adjustment of 22 months for two pregnancies and postpartum periods, many women […]

Introduction Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine disorder characterized by oligo-anovulation, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries on ultrasound. Frequently, PCOS is accompanied by carbohydrate and lipid metabolism disturbances and inflammatory abnormalities that lead to an increased risk of development of cardiovascular disease (CVD) [1-3]. Higher levels of circulating androgens occur in 70-80% of women […]

Background Among the main causes of declining reproductive function and performance in fertile women, uterine fibroids (UFs) play the most significant role. They are the most common benign tumours of the female reproductive system [1-3], consisting of myogenic elements and the stromal component of the myometrium [4]. Despite the development and availability of modern diagnostic […]

Introduction Endometriosis is a disease defined by the presence of endometrial glands and stroma outside of the endometrial cavity, causing chronic inflammation [1]. Deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) is considered its most severe form, with lesions extending underneath the peritoneum and affecting pelvic organs – such as the bowel, the ureters and the bladder – and […]

Introduction Androgens in the female reproductive system In women of reproductive age, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are found in the circulation, but only testosterone and DHT are able to activate androgen receptors. DHEAS, DHEA and androstenedione are considered prohormones, requiring conversion into T or DHT to express their […]

Introduction Background In recent years, endometrial cancer has been found to be the second most common gynecological malignancy in China, after cervical cancer [1]. Endometrial cancer is usually characterized by a thickened endometrium, found on transvaginal ultrasonography (TVS) in postmenopausal women with or without abnormal uterine bleeding [2].  Measurement of endometrial thickness (ET) using TVS is […]

Introduction Exercise is one of the methods to prevent metabolic syndrome, which includes diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. However, exercise has a higher risk for an increase of inflammation and production of reactive oxygen species. Exercise can also cause immune system impairments, muscle damage and an increased susceptibility to infection. According to Nieman (1993), athletes who […]

Introduction In pregnancy, the fetus can be regarded as an allogenic graft that requires careful adjustment of the maternal immune system [1]. Temporary immune suppression is a normal mechanism during fetal development and tissue repair. The immune suppression that occurs during pregnancy is a dynamic modulation involving feto-maternal immunological cross-talk that protects the fetus from […]

Introduction Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) refers to a decrease in ovarian function before the age of 40 and it affects approximately 1% of all women 1. Estradiol is frequently decreased (below 50 pmol/L) in affected women, while gonadotropins are elevated; women report menstrual changes ranging from irregular cycles to amenorrhea 2. In the literature, various […]

Introduction Endometriosis is a widespread, chronic, progressive disease. The main clinical symptoms of endometriosis are chronic pelvic pain and infertility, which lead to poor quality of life. On average, endometriosis is diagnosed four to eleven years after the manifestation of the first clinical symptoms [1]. There are three phenotypes of the disease: superficial peritoneal endometriosis, […]

Introduction Endometrial receptivity and implantation failure remains an unsolved enigma of the 20 million years of human life on our planet. Way of life, work or occupation, eating habits, re­lationship with partner, exposure to environmental toxins, physical activities etc., influence endocrine, psychological, immunological systems, changing the genome and influencing endometrial receptivity. Endometrial receptivity is orchestrat­ed […]

What is kisspeptin? Kisspeptin is a peptide encoded by the KISS1 gene and it was first identified in 1996 (1). The first studies on kisspeptin were conducted in the field of oncology, where the KISS1 gene was first discovered and found to be expressed in malignant melanoma cells. Kisspeptin was originally known as “metastatin” on […]

Introduction In women, there are three circulating forms of estrogen with varying potencies. The most potent is estradiol, produced primarily by the ovaries, with a small percentage coming from the extra glandular conversion of testosterone to androstenedione. Estrone is mainly synthesized through peripheral conversion of androstenedione by the enzyme aromatase, while estriol, produced by the […]