Introduction Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory disease, characterized by the presence or growth of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus. It affects approximately 10% of women in their reproductive age, impacting around 190 million women worldwide [1,2]. Endometriosis is predominantly present in the pelvis and can be subdivided into three subtypes: superficial endometriosis (involving the peritoneal […]

Introduction Salivary and urinary methods for ovulation detection have been associated with reproductive health for many years [1–5]. However, the gold standards for detecting ovulation and menstrual cycle hormones are transvaginal ultrasound and serum hormone testing of estradiol, progesterone, and luteinizing hormone, respectively [6–8]. These gold standards are used in clinical and research settings [6,9] […]

Introduction Breast cancer accounts for approximately 15% of all cancer deaths in women, with a lifetime risk of about 1 in 8 [1,2].  More than 75% of breast cancers are either estrogen or progesterone sensitive and would thus respond to endocrine therapy, which includes aromatase inhibitors (letrozole, anastrozole, exemestane), selective estrogen receptor modulators (tamoxifen) and […]

Introduction Contraception is widely used across Europe, with 90% of women employing some form in 2015 [1]. A 2019 survey by the Italian National Statistics Institute (ISTAT) examined Italian women’s contraceptive practices [2]. The male condom was the most common method used (35%), while oral contraception was adopted by about 20%, among the lowest rates […]

Introduction Chronic endometritis (CE) and adenomyosis share many common features in pathological processes (chronic inflammatory reaction, abnormal immune response), and in terms of clinical manifestations, impacting the reproductive system and fertility (dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, abnormal uterine bleeding, chronic pelvic pain) [1-4]. There is evidence that with endometriosis, the same as in with CE, there is a […]

Introduction Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a major cause of menstrual irregularities, anovulation and androgen excess in women [1]. This condition represents one of the most common endocrinopathies in women, affecting between 5 and 10 percent of women, depending on the population studied and the applied diagnostic criteria [1]. The clinical manifestations of PCOS are […]

Introduction The prevalence of infertility reaches 17.5% worldwide, with primary infertility accounting for 10.5% of cases. Consequently, Early Pregnancy Loss (EPL) stands as one of the most significant concerns in Reproductive Medicine. Its frequency is 13.5%, with the rate escalating to 55% in the case of three consecutive miscarriages. Approximately, 60% of miscarriages occur in […]

Introduction Menopause hormone therapy (MHT) is the best option for the management of vasomotor symptoms, the genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM) and the prevention of bone loss [1]. However, in 2002, the preliminary publishing of data of the combined arm estrogen progestogen (E+P) of the Women Health Initiative study (WHI) reporting that women users of […]

Introduction Menopause is defined as the permanent cessation of menstrual cycles (more than 12 months since the last menstrual period) due to the loss of ovarian activity [1]. The average age of menopause is 50.5, but it can vary greatly from woman to woman [2]. Early menopause has been defined when it occurs between 40 […]

Introduction Vasomotor symptoms such as hot flushes and night sweats are often considered the cardinal symptoms of menopause and have a substantial detrimental effect on women’s health-related quality of life [1-6]. The high proportion of women who experience perimenopausal vasomotor symptoms worldwide highlights the need for effective, well-tolerated treatments. Estrogen-based menopausal hormone therapy is the […]

Introduction In the dynamic landscape of reproductive health, combined oral hormonal contraception (COC) continues to be a pivotal area of research and development. This paper provides a timely and comprehensive overview of well-known facts and recent advancements in COC, aiming to summarize the latest findings, address challenges and highlight potential pitfalls. Estrogens in oral combined […]

Abbreviations Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Follicle Number Per Ovary (FNPO) Hyperandrogenism (HA) Oligo-Anovulation (OA) Polycystic ovarian morphology (PCOM) National Institute of Health (NIH) Androgen Excess and Polycystic Ovary syndrome societies (AE-PCOS) European society of human reproduction and embryology (ESHRE) American society of reproductive medicine (ASRM) Ovarian volume (OV) Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) Antral follicle […]

Introduction Every now and then, the controversy rises again, inexhaustible, on whether menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) increases the relative risk (RR) of suffering from breast cancer (BC). It is an old idea that has often been disproved, and it is still brought up in scientific journals with the consequent social alarm and the consecutive maladjustment […]

Introduction The availability of modern methods of contraception has been described as the “first reproductive revolution” in the history of humanity. Indeed, the availability and widespread use of modern contraceptive modalities represents more than a technical advance: it constitutes a true “social revolution” that greatly contributed to changing the future of the human race [1]. […]

Introduction Current contraceptive methods, namely those based on hormonal contraception, really came to prominence in the 1960s, after Gregory Pincus and his colleagues published the first clinical trials in women on norethisterone and norethindrone, used to inhibit ovulation [1]. Contraceptive methods are commonly categorized as natural, barrier methods, short-acting hormonal forms of contraception, long-acting reversible […]

Introduction Caesarean section (CS) delivery rates have risen dramatically worldwide over the last three decades [1]. In Canada, there has been a 50.8% increase between 1997 and 2016.  In 2019, 288.80 per 1,000 live births (28.8%) were performed via caesarean delivery [1]. As surgical procedure rates increase and CS become one of the most common […]

Introduction Endocrine-related cancer represents a broad area of major interest when considering the undesirable effect of hormones. This field of cancer with a hormonal background is often associated with common cancers such as breast and endometrial cancers, but also with less frequent neoplasms such as ovarian cancer. Colon cancer, or colorectal cancer to be more […]

Introduction In all eukaryote cells, mitochondria are the organelles providing most of the energy used by these cells and are therefore also called the “powerhouse of the cells”. In terms of evolutionary biology, these organelles originate either from endosymbiotically living aerobic bacteria or from incorporated factual anaerobic bacteria in archaea [1]. Structurally, mitochondria have two […]

Introduction Skin senescent changes are caused by reduced collagen, elasticity and decreased total body water content. The magnitude of these changes is directly proportional to increasing age. However, there is an increasing body of evidence that suggest that skin aging changes are directly correlated to menopausal age rather than chronological age, implying estrogen deficiency as […]

Introduction The demand for up-to-date information in the palm of our hand and the exponential advancement of technology within the last decade has caused the modern world to become dependent on cellular telephones, specifically smart phones. As of 2020, 97% of Americans owned a cellular telephone and 85% of Americans owned a smartphone [1]. Nearly […]

Introduction In 1942, Fuller Albright et al. described a disorder characterized by end-organ resistance to parathyroid hormone (PTH) resulting in increased serum PTH levels, hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. The condition was named ‘pseudohypoparathyroidism’ (PHP) given that the PTH was elevated in the face of low calcium and high phosphorus levels [1]. These patients had specific somatic […]

Introduction Endometriosis is a prevalent condition which occurs in an estimated 1 out of 10 women during their reproductive lifespan [1]. Worldwide, this translates to 190 million women with endometriosis. The most commonly occurring symptom is dysmenorrhea, but clinical presentation and disease severity vary widely [1].  Endometriosis usually involves the pelvic organs including the peritoneum, […]

Introduction Hysteroscopy, a frequently used tool in the diagnosis of infertility [1,2], is safe and easy to perform. Nonetheless, it is an invasive procedure, even when performed in an outpatient setting [1,2]. Thus, one should get the maximum informative output [3]. In the last decade, several methods for the evaluation of Fallopian tube patency using […]

Case report A 39-year-old transmale person was referred by his mental health practitioner (MHP) for gender-affirmative hormonal treatment (GAHT) after the diagnosis of gender incongruence was made according the DSM-V criteria. On admission a healthy sportive and clinically unnoticeable person with a female phenotype was seen. Body mass index (BMI) was 27 kg/m2 and smoking […]

Introduction During the last decades, a growing body of evidence has pointed to the need of focusing on cardio-metabolic health with a sex and gender-oriented approach, in order to reduce the burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), which are the leading cause of mortality in both men and women worldwide [1]. The misconception that CVD affect […]